Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) comprise chemical treatment procedures designed to remove recalcitrant, bio-toxic, and non-biodegradable organic pollutants from industrial and municipal wastewater. AOPs rely on the in-situ generation of highly reactive oxygen species—primarily hydroxyl radicals ($\text{OH}^\bullet$)—which possess a high standard oxidation potential ($E^\circ = +2.80\text{ V}$). These unselective oxidants rapidly react with complex organic compounds via hydrogen abstraction, radical combination, or electrophilic addition, degrading toxic pollutants into simple inorganic end-products ($\text{CO}_2$, $\text{H}_2\text{O}$, and mineral salts).
A primary classic AOP mechanism is the Fenton Reaction, involving the catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide ($\text{H}_2\text{O}_2$) by ferrous iron ($\text{Fe}^{2+}$) under acidic conditions ($pH \approx 3.0$):
$$\text{Fe}^{2+} + \text{H}_2\text{O}_2 \rightarrow \text{Fe}^{3+} + \text{OH}^\bullet + \text{OH}^-$$
The regenerated ferric ions ($\text{Fe}^{3+}$) are subsequently reduced back by reacting with excess hydrogen peroxide, maintaining the catalytic cycle:
$$\text{Fe}^{3+} + \text{H}_2\text{O}_2 \rightarrow \text{Fe}^{2+} + \text{HO}_2^\bullet + \text{H}^+$$
In photocatalytic AOP systems utilizing titanium dioxide ($\text{TiO}_2$), photon absorption with energy equal to or exceeding the semiconductor bandgap ($h\nu \ge E_g \approx 3.2\text{ eV}$) excites electrons from the valence band to the conduction band, generating electron-hole pairs ($e_{cb}^- + h_{vb}^+$):
$$\text{TiO}_2 + h\nu \rightarrow e_{cb}^- + h_{vb}^+$$
$$h_{vb}^+ + \text{H}_2\text{O} \rightarrow \text{OH}^\bullet + \text{H}^+$$
The degradation rate of recalcitrant organics ($S$) in heterogenous photocatalytic systems is evaluated using the Langmuir-Hinshelwood Kinetic Model:
$$r = -\frac{dS}{dt} = \frac{k_r \cdot K_a \cdot S}{1 + K_a \cdot S}$$
Where $r$ is the solute reaction rate, $k_r$ is the reaction rate constant, and $K_a$ is the Langmuir adsorption equilibrium constant.
Conventional industrial effluent treatment plants (ETPs) across India traditionally struggled to handle refractory organic loads, active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs), and complex textile dyes, often producing large volumes of chemical iron sludge when utilizing classical Fenton processes.
To address stringent zero liquid discharge (ZLD) mandates enforced by state pollution control boards, modern industrial wastewater infrastructure in India is adopting advanced Photo-Fenton Systems and Cavitation-Assisted AOPs. By integrating ultraviolet (UV-C) or LED irradiation with homogeneous Fenton reagents, Photo-Fenton processes significantly accelerate the reduction of $\text{Fe}^{3+}$ back to $\text{Fe}^{2+}$, dramatically reducing required iron catalyst dosages and sludge production. Furthermore, combining hydrodynamic cavitation with ozone ($\text{O}_3/\text{HC}$) or peroxone ($\text{O}_3/\text{H}_2\text{O}_2$) processes creates intense micro-cavitation bubbles that generate localized high temperatures and pressures, achieving rapid breakdown of recalcitrant micropollutants while optimizing power consumption.
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